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双语：美国长期存在的性别歧视问题严重阻碍妇女人权的实现

The Long-Standing Issue of Gender Discrimination in the United States Seriously Hinders the Realization of Women’s Human Rights within the Country

The China Society for Human Rights Studies issued an article on gender discrimination in U.S.

美国长期存在的性别歧视问题严重阻碍妇女人权的实现

The Long-Standing Issue of Gender Discrimination in the United States Seriously Hinders the Realization of Women’s Human Rights within the Country

中国人权研究会

The China Society for Human Rights Studies (CSHRS)

2019年11月

November 2019

消除一切形式的性别歧视，实现男女平等是人类文明进步的重要标志。1975年联合国第一次世界妇女大会通过的《墨西哥宣言》指出：“男女平等是指男女的人的尊严和价值的平等以及男女权利、机会和责任的平等。”以“人权卫士”自居的美国，不但至今仍未批准《消除对妇女一切形式歧视公约》这一联合国核心人权公约，其国内存在的性别歧视问题也日益恶化，严重阻碍了妇女人权的实现。

Eliminating all forms of gender-based discrimination and achieving full equality between men and women are considered to be major hallmarks in the advancement of human civilization. In 1975, the First UN World Conference on Women passed the Declaration of Mexico on the Equality of Women and Their Contribution to Development and Peace. The Declaration states: “Equality between women and men means equality in their dignity and worth as human beings as well as equality in their rights, opportunities, and responsibilities.” The United States, who always presents itself as a “defender of human rights”, has not yet ratified the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW), which is one of the United Nations’ core human rights conventions, nor has it solved its own increasingly serious problem of gender discrimination. This oversight has significantly hampered the realization of women’s human rights in the United States.

一、美国性别歧视问题的主要表现

Chapter 1 Gender-Based Discrimination in the United States

性别歧视是美国社会存在的一个严重问题。美国妇女受到长期的、系统的、广泛的、制度性的歧视，各种公开的、隐蔽的性别歧视现象触目惊心。

Gender discrimination is a grave problem in US society. US women suffer long-term, systematic, extensive, and systemic discrimination. The various forms of gender discrimination that persist publicly or secretly all over the country have caused a hideous pattern of injustice.

（一）经济领域的性别不平等

Section 1 Economic Gender Inequality

美国是世界上经济最发达的国家，但妇女在经济领域的权利未能得到有效保障。妇女在就业、薪酬和职业发展等方面都面临着严重的歧视。

The United States is the most economically developed country in the world, but it fails to effectively protect women’s economic rights within the country. As such, US women face serious discrimination in employment, payment, and career development.

其一，对妇女的就业歧视和职业歧视相当严重。据统计，妇女占美国总劳动力的比重超过46%，是推动美国经济增长的重要力量。然而，妇女的劳动权利并未得到相应的保障。一是美国职业的性别化区分明显。在美国，妇女就业范围有限，主要集中在文书工作和零售业等领域，在高声望领域妇女所占的比重大大低于男性。与美国科技从业者数量增加相反，美国女性科技从业者人数却在明显地下降，仅仅占全部科学技术领域工作人数的1∕4左右。在美国排名前25的科技公司中，女员工仅占全部员工的19.6%。二是美国妇女失业率明显高于男性。美国劳工统计局发布的就业报告显示，2016年10月至2017年10月，美国零售业岗位共减少54300个，但男性和女性的遭遇却截然不同：女性失去了超过16万个职位，而男性却增加了10.6万个职位。三是美国职场对怀孕妇女和哺乳期妇女存在歧视。孕妇和新生儿母亲面临着现实的就业歧视问题，许多雇主并不尊重《怀孕歧视法案》，时常发生逼迫怀孕女员工离开自己工作岗位的事件。四是在职业发展中，妇女无法获得与男性同等的发展机会，很难打破职业竞争中的“天花板”。《旧金山纪事报》网站2018年12月21日报道，在美国科学技术领域工作的女性中，有50%的受访者表示在工作中经历过性别歧视；约70%的女性受访者表示，在政界和商界担任高层领导职位的女性太少。

Part 1 US Women are Facing Serious Employment and Occupational Discrimination. According to statistics, women account for more than 46 percent of the total US labor force and are an important driving force in North America’s economic growth. Nevertheless, women’s labor rights are not protected accordingly. Some of the major problems in this regard are as follows: First, occupational gender segregation is obvious in the United States. Jobs in high-tech and high-prestige sectors are filled significantly more by men than by women. In the United States, women are mainly employed in a limited number of sectors for secretarial work or retail positions. Despite an increasing number of people working in the science and technology sectors in the United States, the number of women working in these sectors has dropped significantly, accounting for only about 1/4 of the total number of people working. In the top 25 technology companies in the United States, female employees account for only 19.6 percent of all employees. Second, in the United States, the unemployment rate for women is significantly higher than that of men. According to an employment report released by the US Bureau of Labor Statistics, from October 2016 to October 2017, retail jobs in the United States decreased by 54,300. However, the impact on men vs. women was quite different. During this period, women lost more than 160,000 jobs, while 106,000 new jobs were added for men. Third, discrimination against pregnant women and new mothers remains widespread in US workplaces. In the United States, pregnant women and new mothers have to contend with employment discrimination. Many employers do not respect the Pregnancy Discrimination Act (PDA), and pregnant female employees are often forced to leave their jobs. Fourth, when it comes to career development, US women can hardly obtain the same development opportunities as US men, and it is also difficult for them to break the “glass ceiling” when competing for jobs against men. A survey reported on the website of the San Francisco Chronicle on December 21, 2018, in the United States, showed that half of the female interviewees working in science and technology jobs have experienced gender discrimination in the workplace, and about 70 percent of them said that there were too few women in political and business leadership positions.

其二，男女同工不同酬问题突出。美国人口普查局发布的数据显示，多年以来，男女两性之间的收入差距一直维持在21%左右，其间2007年差距为23%，2016年差距为19.5%，缩小差距的幅度并不大。2017年美国女性的年工资收入仅为男性的80.5%，与2016年相比没有统计学差异。2018年美国女性的年工资收入仅为男性的81.3%。在性别歧视更明显的州，女性工资更低。不同种族妇女的收入差异也很大。非洲裔女性的工资仅相当于男性的62%，拉美裔女性的工资仅相当于男性的54%，部分州有色人种女性工资水平尚不足有色人种男性工资收入的50%。女性在各个类型工作岗位的平均工资都低于男性，即使是在像护士等工资较低而且以女性为主的职业中，女性的工资依然低于男性。

Part 2 Unequal Pay for Men and Women Doing the Same Jobs Is a Prominent Problem in the United States. According to data released by the US Census Bureau, for many years there has been about a 21 percent difference between the income of men and that of women. In 2007, the difference was 23 percent, and in 2016, 19.5 percent. There is no significant decrease in this number. In 2017, the annual salaries of US women accounted for only 80.5 percent of US men’s annual salaries, showing no progress in statistical terms when compared to the previous year. In 2018, the annual salaries of US women still accounted for only 81.3 percent of US men’s annual salaries. In the states where gender discrimination is occurring more obviously, women earn even less than men. Within that problem, income differences among women of different races are also significant. Afro-American women’s wages are only 62 percent of that of US men. Hispanic women’s wages are only 54 percent of that of US men. In some states, women of color earn wages that are even less than 50 percent of those earned by men of color. The average wages of women in all types of jobs are lower than those of men. Even in lower-paid and female-dominated jobs such as nursing, women’s wages are still lower than those of men.

其三，妇女贫困问题严重。联合国专家组2015年12月11日发布的报告指出，2005年至2015年的十年间，美国贫困妇女比例从12.1%上升至14.5%，该数字持续高于男性，其中主要是族裔少数群体、单亲家庭妇女和老年妇女。斯坦福大学贫困与不平等问题研究中心2017年发布的报告显示，美国南部农村的整体贫困率为20%，其中非洲裔美国人的贫困率是33%，非洲裔妇女的贫困率高达37%。美国退休安全研究所的研究显示，退休后女性比男性更容易陷入贫困，美国65岁以上女性陷入贫困的几率比男性高出80%，75至79岁女性陷入贫困的几率更是男性的3倍。

Part 3 Women Are More Likely Than Men to Live in Poverty. According to a report released by a UN expert group on December 11, 2015, the proportion of women in poverty in the United States increased from 12.1 percent to 14.5 percent from 2005 to 2015. This proportion was always higher than that of men, and most of these poor women were women from racial minorities and single-parent families and women of older ages. According to a report released by the Stanford Center on Poverty and Inequality in 2017, the overall poverty rate in rural areas in the south of the United States was 20 percent, the poverty rate of Afro-Americans in these areas was 33 percent, and that of Afro-American women in these areas was 37 percent. Another research project conducted by the National Institute on Retirement Security (NIRS), a US-based research institute, has found that retired women are more likely than retired men to live in poverty in the United States. According to this research, US women aged 65 and above are 80 percent more likely than US men of the same age to live in poverty, and US women aged between 75 to 79 are three times more likely than US men of the same age to live in poverty.

（二）妇女遭受职场性骚扰和性侵害

Section 2 Sexual Harassment and Assault Affect Women in the US Workplace.

美国妇女在工作场所遭受性骚扰和性侵害的问题极为普遍。美国平等就业机会委员会2017年发布的报告显示，60%的女性在工作中遭受过性骚扰。由于许多受害者因各种原因不敢提出指控，妇女遭受性骚扰和性侵害的实际数量可能会更高。《今日美国报》网站2018年9月26日报道，性骚扰、性侵犯在美国娱乐界已经成为系统性问题。根据对全行业的调查，94%的受访女性表示在职业生涯中经历过某种形式的性骚扰或性侵犯。2017年10月，针对美国影视制作人哈维·温斯坦性侵多名女明星的丑闻，美国各界在社交媒体上发起名为“ME TOO（我也是受害者）”的社会运动，鼓励受害者用这种方式抗议美国广泛存在的性骚扰和性侵害，得到了百万余人响应。英国广播公司网站2017年11月22日报道，前美国奥林匹克体操运动队医生拉里·纳萨尔被指控性侵接受其治疗的女运动员，受害者达130多名，其中包括多名奥运金牌得主。《今日美国报》网站2017年11月20日撰文指出，美国各州议会深陷性骚扰丑闻。《得梅因纪事报》2018年10月14日报道，艾奥瓦州有20多名议员或议会工作人员卷入到性骚扰案件中，而案件受害者由于担心失业或报复不得不在10余年中保持沉默。

The high occurrence rate of sexual harassment and assault in US workplaces is a problem that US women have to face. According to a report issued in 2017 by the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC), about 60 percent of women had experienced some form of sexual harassment at their workplace. As many victims may be afraid to make accusations, the actual proportion may be even higher. As reported by the website of USA Today on September 26, 2018, sexual harassment and assault have already become a systemic problem in the US entertainment industry. According to an industry-wide survey, 94 percent of female respondents have experienced some form of sexual harassment or sexual assault during professional lives. In October 2017, in response to the scandal of US film and television producer Harvey Weinstein’s sexual assault on many female celebrities, people from various sectors of the United States initiated a social campaign named “Me Too” on social media to encourage victims to protest against widespread sexual harassment and sexual assault in the United States. This movement got responses from more than a million people. The BBC website reported on November 22, 2017, that former US Olympic gymnastics team doctor Larry Nassar was accused of sexually assaulting female athletes who received his treatment, and among the more than 130 victims, several of them were Olympic gold medal winners. The USA Today website wrote on November 20, 2017, that the US state legislatures were caught in frequent sexual harassment scandals. As reported by the Des Moines Register on October 14, 2018, more than 20 members or staff members of legislative bodies in Iowa have been accused of having participated in some form of sexual misconduct, but the victims have no choice but to remain silent for more than 10 years in the fear that they may lose their jobs or experience retaliation.

（三）校园性骚扰和性侵害问题严重

Section 3 Severe Problems of Sexual Harassment and Sexual Assault in Schools

美国高等院校联合会2015年9月发布的调查结果显示，23%的大学本科女生遭受过性骚扰或性侵害，20%的大学生认为性侵犯和不当性行为成为大学校园中极为严重的问题。美国社会科学研究网站2017年的调查显示，在美国主要的研究型大学，每10名受访女研究生中就有1人曾经遭遇教职员工的性骚扰。《迈阿密先驱报》网站2016年9月21日报道，一名16岁的高中女孩在佐治亚高中的教室被性侵之后，反而因申诉被校方多次停课，学校负责人在调查过程中甚至强迫她和侵害人在同一个房间进行询问并演示受害过程，致使其遭受二次心理伤害。

Section 3 Severe Problems of Sexual Harassment and Sexual Assault in Schools

According to a survey released by the Association of American Universities (AAU) in September 2015, 23 percent of undergraduate female students had experienced sexual harassment or sexual assault. 20 percent of university students believed that sexual assault and inappropriate sexual behavior had already become an extremely serious problem on campus. According to a study published on the website of the Social Science Research Council (SSRC) in 2017, one in every 10 female graduate students interviewed at major research universities in the United States reported being sexually harassed by a faculty member. As reported by the website of the Miami Herald on September 21, 2016, a 16-year-old high school girl who had been sexually assaulted in a Georgia high school classroom was suspended from school many times due to her complaint, and the school head even forced her and the violator to stay in the same room and demonstrate the victimization process during the investigation, resulting in her suffering from a secondary psychological injury.

（四）妇女遭受暴力侵害的情况严重

Section 4 Women in the United States Suffer Serious Violent Offenses.

对妇女的暴力是一个广泛存在于美国各个阶层的问题，严重威胁着妇女的生命安全、健康和人格尊严。

Violence against women is a widespread problem that exists in every stratum of US society. It severely threatens US women’s lives, health, and dignity.

其一，妇女是家庭暴力的主要受害者。在美国，平均每3名妇女中就有1人受到过家庭暴力的伤害。据美国家庭暴力研究所统计，美国家庭暴力受害者85%为女性，每年有530万妇女受到虐待，有千余名妇女被她们的配偶、同居者或男朋友杀害。美国疾病控制与预防中心2018年4月发布的调查报告显示，27.3%的美国女性在生活中至少经历过一次来自亲密伴侣的身体暴力、性暴力或跟踪。而据美国终止家庭暴力全国网络发布的报告，受资金限制，依然有部分家暴受害者得不到及时有效的帮助。

Part 1 Women are Primary Victims of Domestic Violence. In the United States, one in every three women has been harmed by domestic violence. According to the US Institute on Domestic Violence, in the United States, 85 percent of domestic violence victims are women; 5.3 million women are abused each year; and more than a thousand women are killed by their spouses, cohabitants, or boyfriends each year. According to a survey released by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) in April 2018, 27.3 percent of US women had experienced at least one act of physical violence, sexual violence, or stalking from their intimate partner during their lives. According to the report released by the National Network to End Domestic Violence, due to the limitations of funds, some victims of domestic violence in the United States still cannot receive timely and effective assistance.

其二，少数族裔女性遭受性骚扰和性侵害时有发生。《今日美国报》网站2018年5月4日报道，美国疾病控制与预防中心的研究表明，少数族裔社区家庭暴力事件更为多发，45%的非洲裔美国女性遭受过亲密伴侣的身体或性虐待。美国国家司法研究所的研究显示，超过4∕5的印第安人和阿拉斯加原住民女性在一生中经历过暴力，其中超过一半的女性经历过性暴力，而施害者大都为其他族裔的男性。《赫芬顿邮报》网站2018年11月14日报道，国家犯罪信息中心仅2016年就收到5712例有关原住民妇女失踪的案件报告。

Part 2 Sexual Harassment and Sexual Assault Often Happen to Racial Minority Women. As reported by the website of USA Today on May 4, 2018, research conducted by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) has found that in the United States, domestic violence is more frequently occurring in ethnic minority communities, and 45 percent of Afro-American women have been physically or sexually abused by their close partners. A research report by the National Institute of Justice (NIJ) of the United States shows that more than four fifths of US Indian and Alaska Native women have experienced violence during their lifetime, and more than half of them have experienced sexual violence. According to the report, most of the victimizers are men of other ethnic groups. As reported by the website of the Huffington Post on November 14, 2018, the National Crime Information Center (NCIC) received 5,712 cases of missing native women in 2016 alone.

其三，军队是妇女性骚扰和性侵害的重灾区。美国女性军人在服役期间也经常遭受性骚扰和性侵害，有媒体质疑美国军队中存在“强奸文化”。调查显示，在美国军队中，超过32%的女性表示曾遭受过性侵犯，有80%的女性表示曾遭到过性骚扰。近年来，美国军队中性骚扰和性侵害的案件数量还在持续攀升，并未得到有效遏制。美国国防部2017年5月发布的年度性侵害报告显示，2016年军队中发生的性侵犯案件多达14900件。2017年受“ME TOO”社会运动的影响，大量军队女性主动站出来揭露自己曾遭受的性骚扰和性侵行为。

Part 3 Women in US Armies Suffer Constant Sexual Harassment and Sexual Assault. Female soldiers in the United States are often victims of sexual harassment and sexual assault during their term of military service. Some media outlets have a suspicion that a “rape culture” exists in the US military. Surveys show that more than 32 percent of women in the US military said they had been sexually assaulted, and 80 percent said they had been sexually harassed. In recent years, the number of cases involving sexual harassment and sexual assault in the US military has continued to rise and has not been effectively curbed. According to the annual sexual assault report released by US Department of Defense in May 2017, there were as many as 14,900 sexual assault cases in the military in 2016. In 2017, under the influence of the “Me Too” social movement, a large number of women in the military took the initiative to expose the sexual harassment and assaults that they experienced.

其四，监狱内妇女遭受暴力问题严重。美国监狱内妇女遭受暴力的问题早已引起联合国的关注。联合国2016年发布的报告指出，“我们同意妇女暴力问题特别报告员在她关于2011年8月访问美国的报告中提出的担忧，尤其是被羁押妇女遭受的过度监禁、单独监禁、性暴力，给孕妇戴镣铐以及对需抚养未成年子女的妇女缺乏替代监禁的刑罚……”英国《卫报》网站2017年6月29日报道，美国各地的监狱和羁押场所管理混乱。贩卖人口者经常将被关押的女性偷运出来，通过毒品控制、野蛮殴打等方式强迫她们进行性交易，使她们陷入犯罪和被剥削的无尽循环中。根据美国司法部网站2018年7月11日和11月8日披露的信息，美国联邦前囚犯押送官员埃里克·斯科特·金德利在任职期间曾多次持械性虐待性侵女囚，导致被害人身心受到严重伤害。

Part 4 Women in Prisons Suffer from Serious Violence. The issue of violence against women in US prisons has long attracted the attention of the United Nations. A report released by the UN in 2016 once stated: “We share the concerns expressed by the Special Rapporteur on violence against women in her report on her visit to the United States in 2011(8), regarding, inter alia, women in detention (over-incarceration, sexual violence, shackling of pregnant women, solitary confinement, lack of alternatives to custodial sentences for women with dependent children...)” As reported by the website of the Guardian, a British daily newspaper, on June 29, 2017, prisons and places of detention across the United States are in disorder. Traffickers often smuggle women out of custody and force them to engage in sexual transactions through drug control, brutal beatings, and other means, so that they are trapped in an endless cycle of crime and exploitation. According to the information disclosed by the website of US Department of Justice (DOJ) on July 11 and November 8, 2018, Eric Scott Kingley, a former federal prisoner-transport officer, has repeatedly abused women prisoners with arms during his tenure, resulting in serious physical and mental injuries to the victims.

其五，宗教场所频发性侵害案件。自2002年《波士顿环球报》揭露宗教场所性侵害丑闻之后，近年来依然发生过多起此类性侵害案件，女性和儿童都是严重受害者。据美国有线电视新闻网2018年8月报道，超过1000名妇女儿童在过去数十年间遭到300多名牧师性侵害。

Part 5 Sexual Assault Cases Frequently Occur in Religious Places. Despite the Boston Globe exposing sexual assault scandals in religious places in 2002, similar sexual assault cases still frequently come to light, with women and children being sexual assault victims. As CNN reported in August 2018, more than 1,000 women and children had been sexually assaulted by more than 300 pastors over the past few decades.

（五）少数族裔妇女健康权利缺乏保障

Section 5 Racial Minority Women Lacking Protection for Their Health Rights

根据美国疾病控制和预防中心的数据，无论收入水平如何，非洲裔妇女和儿童的死亡率都高于白人，非洲裔的人均预期寿命比白人低约3.5岁，非洲裔婴儿死亡率是白人的2.3倍。少数族裔妇女在分娩过程中或分娩后不久的死亡率高于白人妇女。非洲裔妇女只占美国女性人口总数的约14%，但艾滋病毒感染者中非洲裔妇女却占近三分之二，每年新感染艾滋病毒的妇女中有66%是非洲裔，非洲裔妇女艾滋病患者死亡率是白人妇女的近16倍。

According to data from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) in the United States, the mortality rate of Afro-American women and children is higher than that of white people, the average life expectancy of Afro-Americans is about 3.5 years lower than that of white people, and the infant mortality rate of Afro-Americans is 1.3 times higher than that of white people. The data also show that these differences hold true regardless of income. In the United States, mortality rates of racial minority women during childbirth or shortly after delivery are also higher than those of white women. Afro-American women account for only about 14 percent of the total female population in the United States, but nearly two-thirds of HIV infected women in the country are Afro-Americans. Every year, 66 percent of new HIV infected women are Afro-Americans. The mortality rate of HIV infected Afro-American women is nearly 15 times higher than that of HIV infected white women.

二、美国产生性别歧视问题的根源

Chapter 2 Roots of Gender-Based Discrimination in the United States

美国存在的严重的性别歧视问题，有其深刻的、多方面的原因。美国由来已久的性别歧视传统、父权制文化，特别是社会制度的弊端是导致性别歧视问题难以有效解决的根本性障碍。

The serious problem of gender discrimination in the United States stems from profound and multi-faceted reasons. The long-existing historical tradition of gender discrimination, the patriarchal culture, and particularly, drawbacks of the US social system constitute fundamental hindrances to the elimination of gender discrimination in the United States.

（一）性别歧视的历史传统由来已久

Section 1 The Long-Existing Historical Tradition of Gender Discrimination

美国的性别歧视有极其深刻的社会历史根源。作为美国立国的政治纲领，《独立宣言》中所指的“人”却是不包括妇女和黑人的。美国长期以来自我标榜的“美式人权史”实质上只是属于白人男性的历史，“美式人权”实际上仅是白人男性享有的特权。1848年7月，美国妇女举行第一届女权大会，仿效《独立宣言》发表了《美国妇女权利宣言》，尖锐地指出妇女在法律、政治、经济、社会等各方面受到歧视和不公正对待，要求与男性享有平等的权利。但是，美国妇女争取自己平等权利的道路异常曲折。

Gender discrimination in the United States has extremely profound social and historical roots. The United States Declaration of Independence proclaimed, “All men are created equal.” As the political program that shaped the founding of the United States, the “men” referred to in the Declaration of Independence do not include women and black people. The “History of US Human Rights” that the United States always boasts about is actually a history dominated by US white males, and the so-called “US human rights” are actually privileges enjoyed by white males in the country. As early as July 1848, US women held the first gathering devoted to women’s rights in the United States and issued the Declaration of Rights and Sentiments to echo the Declaration of Independence. The Declaration of Rights and Sentiments sharply pointed out that women were discriminated against and unfairly treated in legal, political, economic, and social aspects and demanded that women should have equal rights to men. Despite that, the path for US women to fight for their equal rights has been extremely tortuous.

自建国初期开始，美国妇女就一直呼吁宪法承认其选举权，但是在这个自视“最民主、最自由”的国家，直到建国100多年后的1920年，美国宪法第19条修正案正式生效，妇女才获得了选举权。美国妇女为争取与男子的平等权利和地位进行斗争的历史，也从一个侧面证明了美国沉重的性别歧视历史传统。

Since the early days of the United States, US women had been demanding that the US Constitution should recognize their right to vote. Nevertheless, this country, which has always described itself as “the most democratic and the freest” country in the world, did not grant women such a right until 1920 by ratifying the 19th Amendment to the US Constitution. More than 100 years after the founding of the country, US women finally attained the right to vote. The history of US women’s struggles for equal rights and status to men reveals the deep roots of gender discrimination in the United States.

（二）父权制文化妨碍两性平等关系的形成

Section 2 The Patriarchal Culture Hinders Gender Equality.

由于种种历史原因，美国社会中父权制文化根深蒂固。父权制文化将现实存在的性别歧视看作是自然形成的、理所当然的和不可改变的，是由妇女的生理状况决定的。这种观念已经渗透到了美国文化之中。社会公众和一些政治家的言论中充斥着对妇女的陈规定型的偏见。20世纪50年代至60年代，“让妇女返回家庭”成为一股强大的社会思潮。美国社会普遍认为，妇女的角色就是生儿育女，成为贤妻良母。1963年美国著名女权主义作家贝蒂·弗里丹出版《女性的奥秘》一书，向这一陈腐的妇女观提出了挑战。如今，在许多美国人的内心深处，美国仍然是一个“女人为家庭主妇”的社会。这种文化氛围，使得美国妇女在政治、经济、文化、伦理等各个领域都处于与男性不平等的地位。即使在家庭这样的私人领域中，女性也处于与男性不平等的地位。公众更多地将男性与领导人的角色联系在一起，而将女性与抚养孩子、照顾家庭联系在一起。

Due to various historical reasons, the patriarchal culture is deeply rooted in US society. The patriarchal culture regards the existing gender discrimination as a natural, reasonable, and unchangeable thing, and it is believed that it is determined by the physiological conditions of women. This concept has been deeply embedded in US culture. In the United States, the public’s and some politicians’ remarks are full of prejudices against women. From the 1950s to the 1960s, “letting women return to the families” became a powerful ideological trend in US society, where most people believed that the role of women was to have children and become good mothers and wives. In 1963, the famous US feminist writer Betty Friedan published her book The Feminine Mystique, which challenged this stereotypical view of women. Nowadays, deep down in the hearts of many US citizens, the United States is still a society where women are housewives. This cultural atmosphere places US women in an unequal position to men in terms of politics, economy, culture, and ethics. Even in the private sphere such as families, women are also in an unequal position to men. The public is more likely to associate men with the role of leaders, and women with the role of carers for children and families.

在父权制文化长期浸染下的一些大众媒体，建构了以男性话语为核心的性别关系，传播陈规定型而且贬损的妇女形象，以谋求狭隘的商业和消费主义利益，也进一步固化了妇女的弱势地位和公众对女性的刻板形象。最明显的例证是在政治选举中，媒体对参与政治的男性和女性的报道不同，明显对女性抱有一定程度的偏见。

Some mass media, under the long-lasting influence of the patriarchal culture, construct a male-centered media environment and disseminate stereotyped and derogatory views on women to gain commercial and consumerist interests. All this further puts women in an inferior status and enhances the public’s stereotyped views on women. The most obvious example is that in political elections, the media often makes very different reports on male and female candidates and shows a certain degree of prejudice against women.

（三）社会制度的弊病严重阻碍着性别平等的实现

Section 3 Drawbacks of the US Social System Severely Hinder Gender Equality

多年来的妇女运动虽然使得美国的性别不平等状况有所改观，但并没有也不可能从根本上改变美国女性受到不平等对待的状况。联合国专家组2015年访问美国后发布的报告指出，妇女在竞选筹款方面面临的巨大困难是导致妇女在选举政治职位任职率偏低的重要原因。在过去几十年中，金钱在美国政治选举中的作用大幅增加。男性主导的政治人际网络的排他性，是导致美国妇女筹集竞选资金困难重重的原因之一。

Although the women’s movement over the years has indeed reduced gender inequality in the United States, it has not fundamentally changed the situation in which US women are mistreated. A UN expert group released a report on their visit to the United States in 2015 and the report said, “The low level of representation for women in elected political posts is partly due to the greater difficulties women face in fundraising for campaigns. The role of money in political campaigns has grown significantly in the last decades. Women’s difficulty in fundraising is considered to result from complex causes. One opinion is that it is a result of exclusion from the predominantly male political networks that promote funding.”

美国社会以私有制为基础的经济制度，为极少数金融寡头和垄断集团所左右。美国政治制度中扮演主角的共和党、民主党，实际上被极少数利益集团所掌控。美国国会和政府的很多政客实际上沦为资本和极少数利益集团的代言人。在这种社会制度的背景下，资本、权力、极少数人的利益成为立法、行政、司法以及社会管理的最终价值指向，从而决定了美国难以把实现性别平等放到应有的位置而重视，没有从实现社会公正和妇女人权的高度来看待消除性别歧视问题。因此，美国政府很难采取积极措施解决性别歧视这一重大的现实社会问题。

The economic system based on private ownership in US society is dominated by a handful of financial oligarchy and monopoly groups. The Republican Party and the Democratic Party, who play leading roles in the US political system, are actually controlled by a very small number of interest groups. Many politicians in US Congress and the government have actually become spokesmen for the capital and a few interest groups. Within such a social system, the legislation, administration, justice, and social management of the country actually serve the interests of the capital, power, and a few people. This determines that it is impossible for the United States to give due attention to gender equality and the issue of eliminating gender discrimination, which is a part of the drive to achieve social justice and to realize a woman’s human rights. Given all this, it is difficult for the US government to take active measures to solve this major social problem of gender discrimination.

2010年和2015年美国接受联合国人权理事会普遍定期审议时，美国政府均承诺批准《消除对妇女一切形式歧视公约》。然而时至今日，美国国会仍未批准这一联合国核心人权公约。联合国报告指出，对于批准该公约的抗拒反映了美国政界对于保障妇女平等人权的反对力量。此外，美国也没有响应联合国的倡议，制定国家人权行动计划；更没有推行联合国倡导的促进妇女参政的配额制度。

When the United States accepted the universal periodic review of the UN Human Rights Council in 2010 and 2015, the US government committed to ratifying the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW). Nevertheless, to this day, the US Congress still has not yet ratified the CEDAW. UN reports have pointed out that the resistance to the ratification of the Convention reflects the opposition of the US political circles to grant women equal human rights. In addition, the United States has not yet responded to the UN initiative to formulate a national human rights action plan; nor has it adopted a quota system promoted by the United Nations to promote women’s participation in politics.

按照联合国近年来对弹性工作时间、部分就业等更为灵活的“家庭友好”就业举措进行的评价，美国在20个工业化国家中名列最后。在工业化国家中，美国是唯一没有从立法上保障带薪育儿的国家。此外，美国只有16%的劳动妇女享有全薪产假，美国迟迟没有解决男女同工不同酬这个老大难问题。这些问题的存在，也暴露了美国社会制度的种种弊端。

According to the United Nations’ recent evaluation of family-friendly workplace arrangements, such as a flexible working arrangement and partial employment, the United States ranked last among the 20 industrialized countries in this field. Among the industrialized countries, the United States is the only country that has not yet legislatively guaranteed paid parental leave. Apart from that, only 16 percent of working women in the United States have full-pay maternity leave, and unequal pay for equal work between men and women still remains a problem in the country. These existing problems also expose various drawbacks of the US social system.

三、美国性别歧视问题的严重后果

Chapter 3 The Serious Consequences of Gender Discrimination in the United States

妇女人权是普遍人权的不可分割的重要组成部分，妇女的权利及其实现状况是衡量一个国家人权状况的重要标志。美国存在着严重的性别歧视问题，严重妨碍妇女人权的实现，加剧了美国社会不平等状况，也阻碍了国际人权事业的发展。

Women’s human rights are an inseparable, essential part of universal human rights. Women’s human rights and their realization are important indicators of a country’s human rights situation. The serious problem of gender discrimination in the United States severely hinders the realization of women’s human rights and exacerbates social inequality in the country. It also hinders the development of the international human rights cause.

（一）严重妨碍美国妇女人权的实现

Section 1 Gender Discrimination Constitutes a Severe Hindrance to the Realization of Women’s Human Rights in the United States.

女性是人类的母亲，妇女问题不仅仅关系着女性自身，也关系着人类社会的可持续发展。尊重和保障妇女人权，实现性别平等是关键，同时也是国家和社会可持续发展的重要基础。联合国“2030年可持续发展议程”提出的17项可持续发展目标中的第五个目标，就是实现性别平等，增强所有妇女和女童的权能。虽然在赢得选举权后的近100年间，美国妇女在争取各方面平等权益的道路上取得了一些进步，但是美国现存的种种性别歧视问题，严重阻碍了妇女权利的实现和发展。联合国专家组严厉指出，美国妇女并没有获得其作为公民的正当地位，在妇女公共和政治领域任职率、经济和社会权利及健康和安全保护的国际标准方面，美国处于落后地位。美国存在的严重的性别歧视状况直接影响到许多美国家庭的稳定发展和未来一代人的健康成长。

Women are the mothers of human beings. Women’s issues are not only related to women themselves but also to the sustainable development of human society. Respecting and safeguarding women’s human rights and achieving gender equality are key issues and an important basis for the sustainable development of a country and its society. Goal number five of the 17 Sustainable Development Goals proposed by the United Nations’ 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development is to achieve gender equality and to empower all women and girls. During the nearly 100 years after winning the right to vote, although US women have made some progress on the road to obtain equal rights in all aspects, the existing gender discrimination in the country has seriously hindered the realization and development of women’s rights.

The UN expert group sternly pointed out that US women have not taken their rightful place as citizens and have fallen behind international standards in regards to their public and political representation, their economic and social rights, and their health and safety protections. The severe gender discrimination existing in the United States may directly affect the stable development of many US families and the healthy growth of their future generations.

（二）加剧美国社会的不平等

Section 2 Gender Discrimination Exacerbates Social Inequality in the United States.

性别平等是社会平等的重要内容，也是实现社会公正的关键问题之一。性别歧视在一定程度上剥夺了占人口一半的妇女参与社会、经济、政治的机会和权利，社会平等、社会公正也就不可能真正实现。美国妇女在经济领域、人身安全、健康等方面的权利得不到应有的保障，导致其对自身社会地位不平等和社会不公的不满情绪不断高涨。根据盖洛普咨询公司网站2018年1月10日发布的调查数据，46%的女性受访者对自己的社会地位表示不满或非常不满，这一比例在2008年的调查中为30%。《纽约时报》网站2018年1月20日报道，数百万人参加“2018 女性游行”，对现任政府政策表示强烈抗议。美国存在的严重的性别歧视状况，加剧了美国社会本来就很严重的不平等状况，进一步撕裂了美国社会。

Gender equality is an important part of social equality and one of the key issues in achieving social justice. Gender discrimination has deprived women, who occupy half of the population, of social, economic, and political opportunities and rights to a certain extent. Under such circumstances, social equality and social justice can never be fully realized. As their economic rights, personal safety rights, health rights, and other rights are not properly protected, US women’s dissatisfaction with their social status, gender inequality, and social injustice continue to increase. According to a poll published by Gallup on its website on January 10, 2018, 46 percent of female respondents expressed dissatisfaction or extreme dissatisfaction with their social status, and in the 2008 poll, this proportion was 30 percent. The New York Times website reported on January 20, 2018, that millions of people participated in the “2018 Women’s March” to strongly protest current government policies. The severe gender discrimination existing in the United States has exacerbated social inequality in the country and further torn its society apart.

（三）阻碍国际人权事业的发展

Section 3 Gender Discrimination Hinders the Development of the International Human Rights Cause.

1993年联合国《维也纳宣言和行动纲领》指出：“妇女和女童的人权是普遍性人权当中不可剥夺和不可分割的一个整体部分，妇女在国家、区域和国际各级充分和平等参与政治、公民、经济和文化生活，消除基于性别的一切形式的歧视是国际社会的首要目标。”实现充分享有人权是人类社会的共同奋斗目标。为了这一共同目标，尽快消除性别歧视，切实保障妇女权利，实现全面的、系统的、事实上的男女平等，是国际人权事业的重要组成部分。美国作为世界第一大经济体，作为联合国常任理事国，作为在当今世界格局和全球治理体系中具有举足轻重地位的国家，本应在消除性别歧视、保障妇女权利方面展现负责任态度、发挥积极建设性作用，事实却是美国存在的性别歧视状况一直在延续甚至恶化。不仅如此，美国甚至于2018年6月19日悍然宣布退出联合国人权理事会。

The Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action of the United Nations adopted in 1993 stated: “The human rights of women and of the girl-child are an inalienable, integral and indivisible part of universal human rights. The full and equal participation of women in political, civil, economic, social and cultural life, at the national, regional and international levels, and the eradication of all forms of discrimination on grounds of sex are priority objectives of the international community.” The realization of the full enjoyment of human rights by human beings is the common goal of human society. In order to achieve this common goal, it is requested that gender discrimination is eliminated as soon as possible, by safeguarding women’s rights, and achieving comprehensive, systematic, and de facto equality between men and women. All these are important components of the international human rights cause. As the world’s largest economy, a permanent member of the United Nations, and an important country in today’s world and global governance system, the United States should have shown a responsible attitude toward and played an active and constructive role in the drive to eliminate gender discrimination and safeguard women’s rights. Nevertheless, the country allows gender discrimination to continue to exist and even deteriorate. Not only that, it even announced its withdrawal from the UN Human Rights Council on June 19, 2018.

多年来，美国在人权问题上奉行“双重标准”，一直把人权作为指责和干预他国的政治霸权工具，而对自身存在的包括性别歧视在内的严重人权问题却视而不见，甚至对承担国际人权公约的责任持消极抗拒态度。美国的所作所为，不仅与人类共同的人权价值背道而驰，而且越来越成为国际人权领域的“搅局者”和“麻烦制造者”，严重损害了国际人权事业的健康发展。

For years, the United States has been practicing “double standards” on human rights issues. It uses human rights just as a tool to maintain world hegemony, criticize other countries and interfere in other countries’ internal affairs, while neglecting its own serious human rights issues, such as gender discrimination. The United States even shows a negative attitude toward and resistance of its obligations under the international human rights conventions. What the country has done runs counter to the values and objectives regarding human rights, which are common to all humanity. The United States has increasingly become a “disturber” and a “troublemaker” in the international human rights field and has seriously jeopardized the healthy development of the international human rights cause.

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